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Siri Chilazi is a Research Fellow at the Women and Public Policy Program at Harvard Kennedy School. She works to advance gender equality in the workplace through research and research translation. She collaborates with organizations to close gender gaps, and has presented at conferences worldwide. Her work has appeared in Harvard Business Review, The New York Times, BBC, Fast Company, and Forbes. She has an MBA from Harvard Business School, a Master in Public Policy from the Harvard Kennedy School, and a BA in Chemistry and Physics from Harvard College.

Adam Cohen is Professor of Chemistry, Chemical Biology, and Physics at Harvard. He obtained Ph.D.s from Stanford and Cambridge, UK. He was an undergraduate at Harvard. Cohen is a recipient of the Blavatnik National Award in Chemistry and the American Chemical Society Pure Chemistry Award. He was named one of the top 35 US technological innovators under 35 by MIT Technology Review and one of the "Brilliant Ten" top young scientists by Popular Science. He founded Q-State Biosciences, which combines optical imaging with stem cell tech for new diagnostics and therapies for neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases.

William Sahlman is a professor at Harvard Business School who specializes in investment and financing decisions in entrepreneurial ventures. He has authored articles and textbooks, taught courses, designed curriculum, and developed an online course. He has held various leadership roles at Harvard and served on advisory boards and boards of directors. He received The American Spirit Award from the National Venture Capital Association in 2011.

Pershing Square Professor of Human Neuroscience, Harvard

Whyte is the Hitachi America Prof. of Engineering at MIT, Director of the MIT Plasma Science & Fusion Center, and a prof. in the MIT Dept. of Nuclear Science & Engineering. His research focuses on accelerating the development of magnetic fusion energy systems. He leads the SPARC project to demonstrate net fusion plasma energy gain and the Lab. for Innovations in Fusion Technology. He earned his B. Eng. from the University of Saskatchewan and a PhD from the Université du Québec. He served as Dept. Head of MIT Nuclear Science & Engineering from 2015-2019 and has been a committee member on three NAS studies. He has published over 350 papers and has won numerous awards, including the IAEA Nuclear Fusion Prize (2013) and the Fusion Power Associates Leadership Award (2018).

Mary-Frances O'Connor is an Associate Professor of Clinical Psychology and Psychiatry at the University of Arizona. Her research focuses on the physiological correlates of emotion during bereavement, including yearning and isolation. She works to improve interventions for prolonged grief disorder, newly included in the DSM-5.

John Stauffer is the Sumner R. and Marshall S. Kates Prof. of English and African & African American Studies at Harvard. He is the author/editor of 20 books and over 100 articles, which focus on antislavery, social protest, and photography. He has written national bestsellers and won awards. His essays/reviews have appeared in Time, WSJ, NYT, WP, Huffington Post, and scholarly journals/books. He has been on radio/TV, consulted for films/exhibitions, and served as a speaker/scholar for the US State Dept. He lives in Cambridge with his wife and two sons.

Martin Surbeck's research centers around the dynamics of competition and cooperation within groups. He utilizes bonobos and chimpanzees as models to shed light on our evolutionary history. Of particular interest to him are the social systems of bonobos and the selective pressures that distinguish them from chimpanzees. Employing a comparative approach and drawing data from wild populations, Martin aims to comprehend various social traits. In 2016, Martin played a crucial role in establishing a new bonobo research site at Kokolopori in collaboration with BCI and Vie Sauvage. This endeavor involved closely monitoring three habituated bonobo groups, combining behavioral observations with endocrinological data to gain valuable insights into intergroup tolerance.

OK, what is the most difficult problem that you're trying to solve right now? Well, I'm working, and my students are working on several different problems which none of us knows how to solve. And so we don't know which of these is going to be most difficult, which might be easy to solve, and which might be completely unsolvable. So I'll tell you about one problem that we're interested in. We're interested in trying to understand the three dimensional structures of memories in the brain. So if you think about what you had for breakfast this morning, there's some three dimensional representation of that memory in your brain and some set of biochemical changes in the neurons in your brain. But we have no idea what these maps are, or what are the rules that govern how memories are encoded or represented in the brain. My lab is working on trying to develop tools which we can use to map these changes. One approach that we're working on is to genetically engineer neurons to grow little protein fibers inside of each cell. And as these fibers grow, they incorporate marks of neuronal activity, a little bit like tree rings in a tree, which incorporate information about seasonal climate changes. And by incorporating within each neuron, a little tape recorder of its activity, we hope to be able to then look in the brains of animals, mice, which have learned different things, and to map the patterns of neural activity associated with different memories during the formation of the memory, during the recall of the memory, and during eventually maybe the forgetting of the memory, or changes in the memory.

We are trying to understand the three dimensional structures of memories in the brain, and one way we're doing this is by genetically engineering neurons to grow little protein fibers inside of each cell that record its activity.

What is the most difficult problem that you are trying to solve right now?

Unlocking the Secrets of Memory: Mapping Brain Activity for Understanding Memories

The most difficult problem that I am currently working on, along with my students, involves understanding the three-dimensional structures of memories in the brain. We are trying to uncover the maps and rules that govern how memories are encoded and represented in the brain. One approach we are exploring is genetically engineering neurons to grow protein fibers that incorporate marks of neuronal activity, similar to tree rings representing seasonal climate changes. By creating a tape recorder of each neuron's activity, we aim to map the patterns of neural activity associated with different memories during their formation, recall, and potentially even forgetting or changes over time. While we are working on various challenging problems, this particular area of research stands out as one of the most difficult and intriguing.

Well, everyone can get access to the original Apple business plan because it's if you just search for it, you know people I think have some mistaken impressions of how Apple got started. Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs did indeed create a product a motherboard early on in the mid-70s. They decided the sell it that was all. Great, but they went out to raise money to do this at a larger scale and no one was prepared to give them money. And one venture capitalist said you ought to talk to this guy Mike markkula. He's a seasoned executive. Mike came in and started to work with them might became the CEO recruited, another guy, Mike Scott, and it was the team of those for that created. The business plan that was able to attract capital from Arthur Rock. A convened rock and other investors. So again, it wasn't just Steve Jobs. It wasn't just Steve Wozniak. It was a team which is the fundamental underpinning of every successful venture.

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak created a motherboard early on in the mid-70s, but it was when they went out to raise money to do this at a larger scale that Mike Markkula, Mike Scott, and Arthur Rock joined the team. This team then created the business plan that was able to attract capital from investors, and this is the original Apple business plan which can be found online.

Rumor has it you have the first Apple business plan – what stood out to you?

The Untold Story: The Team Behind Apple's Success

The original Apple business plan is accessible to anyone who searches for it. It's important to clarify some misconceptions about how Apple got started. Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs did create a motherboard product in the mid-70s, but they needed funding to scale it up. They approached various investors but faced rejection. Eventually, they were advised to speak with Mike Markkula, a seasoned executive. Mike joined the team as CEO and recruited another individual named Mike Scott. Together, they created a business plan that attracted capital from investors like Arthur Rock. It's crucial to recognize that Apple's success was not solely attributed to Steve Jobs or Steve Wozniak, but rather the collaborative efforts of a team, which is a fundamental aspect of any successful venture.

I think the most fascinating topic that people are interested in now are nanoparticles that can deliver things like messenger RNA. And I mean, a great example of that are the COVID vaccines, that if it wasn't for the drug delivery systems, we wouldn't have those vaccines. And I think people are interested in making better and better ones over time. We're doing a lot of work on that in our lab ourselves.

Nanoparticles that can deliver messenger RNA are a fascinating topic of interest currently due to the development of COVID vaccines. My lab is working on developing better drug delivery systems.

What is the most fascinating topic in your field right now?

Revolutionizing Drug Delivery: Nanoparticles and mRNA Vaccines

The most fascinating topic in my field right now is the development of nanoparticles for drug delivery, particularly in the context of messenger RNA (mRNA). This has been exemplified by the COVID vaccines, which rely on efficient drug delivery systems to transport mRNA into cells. People are intrigued by the potential to improve these systems further. In our own lab, we are actively engaged in research and development in this area.

What is one thing about the human brain which still keeps you awake at night? Well, let me start by saying that I try not to let the human brain keep me awake at night. One thing we've learned over the years is how important sleep is to our mental health, our physical health, our stress reactivity, our learning, our memory, and our brain health-- that I really take it seriously. I try very much to get good sleep. So yeah, my daughter might wake me up, my dog might wake me up, but I try not to let thinking about the human brain keep me awake at night. Having said that, there are some things I wonder about the human brain. So one of them is, what makes a human brain human? So if we look at brains and what they look like and how they function across species, there aren't that many differences. If we look at our closest primate relatives and their brains, we have the same basic parts, the same basic functions, and the same basic parts. And the neurons work roughly the same. And in fact, as scientists, we take advantage of that. We study other animals to get insight into human brain function. But we know that, of course, humans are very different than other animals in many important ways. We have generative language. We have this ability to have complex thoughts and communicate them with each other-- sort of infinite number of potential thoughts. We have complex societies and structures that govern how we operate in the world that other animals don't have. So there must be something that happened in brain development, some switch that occurred that made humans and their brains different, that enabled all these things that make us uniquely humans. But I have no idea what that switch is because when I look at the brains, they don't look so drastically different. So what is it about human brains that make us human? I have no idea. That's something I wonder about.

One thing that still keeps me awake at night about the human brain is what makes it uniquely human - why are our brains so different to those of other animals, and what evolutionary switch caused us to develop the capacity for complex thought, language, and social structures?

What is the one thing about human brain which still keeps you awake at night?

The Mystery of What Makes the Human Brain Truly Unique

What is one thing about the human brain that still keeps me awake at night? Well, I try not to let the human brain keep me awake at night because I prioritize getting good sleep for my mental and physical health. However, there are some aspects of the human brain that I do wonder about.

One question that intrigues me is what makes a human brain truly human. When we compare the structure and function of brains across different species, including our closest primate relatives, we find many similarities. The basic parts and functions of the brain are shared among species, and neurons work in similar ways. In fact, scientists often study other animals to gain insights into human brain function.

Yet, humans are undeniably different from other animals in significant ways. We possess generative language, the ability to have complex thoughts and communicate them effectively. We have intricate societies and systems that govern our behavior, which other animals lack. There must have been a crucial development or switch in brain evolution that made humans and their brains unique, enabling all the characteristics that define us as humans. However, when I examine the brains, I don't see drastic differences that explain these distinctions.

So, the question that keeps me wondering is: What is it about human brains that truly makes us human? I don't have an answer to that yet, but it's something that continues to fascinate me.

I've read, maybe, 10,000 business plans. I don't really know at this point. But I've only seen three companies actually meet their plan. And I think that's a pattern. I don't know about other people but-- so you're almost always overconfident. And without overconfidence, there's no parenting, there's no entrepreneurship. So I think what I've learned is you have to be able to form a relationship with your investors such that, if your tests are promising the things you've learned about customer product-market fit, then they will give you more money, even though you didn't accomplish what you said you were going to accomplish in your first slide deck or business plan. Apple missed by 60%-70% in the first year. Apple didn't think there was going to be a market for business computers and then somebody invents VisiCalc. The market for business personal computers explodes. So again, they could have said, you didn't do what you were promising. We hate you. We're going to take away the money. No, I've got faith that you're going to be able to figure this out. Don't run out of cash. Don't run out of trust.

I've learned that success in entrepreneurship is often driven by overconfidence and being able to form a relationship with investors so that if tests are promising, they will give more money even if the plan wasn't achieved. Apple's success story demonstrates this, as VisiCalc created an unexpected market for business computers despite their initial plans. The importance of not running out of cash or trust when forming these relationships cannot be understated.

What are common mistakes of entrepreneurs you've witnessed over the last 40 years?

Overconfidence and Cash-Trust Balance: Mistakes of Entrepreneurs

Over the last 40 years, I've come across common mistakes made by entrepreneurs. One pattern I've noticed is that many entrepreneurs tend to be overconfident. This overconfidence is often necessary for parenting and entrepreneurship, but it can lead to certain pitfalls.

One mistake I've witnessed is entrepreneurs failing to meet their initial business plans. Out of the thousands of business plans I've read, only three companies actually achieved what they had outlined. However, I believe it's important to form a strong relationship with investors. If you can demonstrate promising results and show that you've learned valuable insights about customer product-market fit, investors may still support you and provide additional funding, even if you didn't accomplish everything you initially set out to do.

A notable example is Apple, which missed its targets by a significant margin in its first year. They didn't anticipate a market for business computers until VisiCalc, a spreadsheet software, was invented. This led to a sudden explosion in the market for business personal computers. Despite not meeting their initial promises, Apple's investors had faith in their ability to adapt and succeed.

In summary, it's crucial for entrepreneurs to avoid running out of cash and to maintain the trust of their investors. Building a strong relationship with investors who believe in your potential can help navigate the challenges and uncertainties that arise along the entrepreneurial journey.

Grieving is incredibly stressful. It's stressful for the body, and it's stressful for the mind. In fact, I sometimes say grieving is a little like trying to learn calculus while also training for a marathon. In research from my own lab and from others, we know that bereavement usually causes an increase in cortisol, the stress hormone, and causes increases in IL-6, one of the inflammatory markers of the immune system. And it's stressful both because of all the emotions, and intrusive thoughts, and difficulty sleeping that we have when we lose a loved one. But it's also stressful because we suddenly have to restore a life without this person. So if you lost a spouse, you may also have lost a co-parent, or you may have lost a breadwinner. Or as an older couple, you may have lost the person who drives, and so all of the stresses of all of the new things that you have to learn to do now in their absence. And as though all of that wasn't hard enough, one of the things that usually reduces stress for many of us is spending time with our loved ones. So in this moment, where you are so incredibly overwhelmed, often the very person that you would have turned to to feel comfort, to have that dopamine, and oxytocin, and opioid increase by spending time with them and being cared for and loved by them, often, this is exactly the person who is gone, which makes the bereavement stress feel even harder, given that we don't have a way or the same way to overcome that. Human beings are remarkably resilient though, and it turns out that most of us are able to find support from another person. And so reaching out during this time of stress, taking care of your physical body are both incredibly important during grief.

Grieving is incredibly stressful, both mentally and physically. It can cause an increase in cortisol, the stress hormone, and increases in IL-6, an inflammatory marker of the immune system. Grieving also often results in a lack of support from the person we would usually turn to for comfort and love, making it even harder. However, human beings are remarkably resilient, and reaching out and taking care of our physical selves during this time can help us to cope.

Your lab studies stress responses to grief and looked at bereavement and inflammation and how cortisol affects us. What is happening here?

Key takeaway: Grieving: The Stressful Impact on Mind and Body

Grieving is a highly stressful experience, both for the body and the mind. Research from my lab and others has shown that bereavement leads to an increase in cortisol, the stress hormone, as well as an increase in IL-6, an inflammatory marker of the immune system.

The stress of grief arises from the intense emotions, intrusive thoughts, and difficulty sleeping that accompany the loss of a loved one. Additionally, the stress stems from the need to rebuild a life without that person. For example, losing a spouse may mean losing a co-parent or a breadwinner. Older couples may lose the person who used to drive, adding the stress of learning new tasks in their absence.

To make matters even more challenging, one of the usual sources of stress relief, spending time with loved ones, is no longer available. The very person we would have turned to for comfort and the release of feel-good hormones like dopamine, oxytocin, and opioids is now gone. This absence intensifies the stress of bereavement, as we lack the same means of overcoming it.

However, humans are remarkably resilient, and most of us are able to find support from another person during this difficult time. Reaching out for support and taking care of our physical well-being are crucial aspects of coping with grief.